Judaism’s emphasis on the human nature and human qualities of the prophets was directed against the Christian-pagan notion of a man-God. Judaism insisted upon God’s absoluteness, his incommensurability with man’s reckoning. But there still remained for Jewish medieval thinkers the quite different problem posed by Islamic philosophy. The Islamic Aristotelians, the Falasifas, taught that prophecy is a natural completion of human nature which the gifted man can with certainty achieve through the exercise of his special gifts.

Maimonides accepted this teaching with a decisive reservation: he denied the certainty. Maimonides saw the same danger in Islamic philosophy as in the Christian-pagan belief—the confusion of man with God. The Christianpagan “paradox ” of a man-God and the Islamic “philosophy” of the calculable certainty of prophecy, are disclosed to be one and the same. The purpose of both is to resolve the mystery of God either through “paradox” or “reason.” Maimonides preserves, and this is his innermost motive, the revelation of God as something which comes from the “beyond.”

The following selections are slightly condensed from Maimonides’ Mishneh Torah, Book I, Chapters VII-X. (They have been translated from the Hebrew by Jacob Sloan.) The Mishneh Torah was written in 1180, ten years before the better known Guide to the Perplexed; it is a gigantic codification of Jewish belief and ritual, in fourteen books.

The teaching on prophecy is central to Maimonides’ thought. He gives evidence of this from the very first words of Chapter VII: “miyesodei hadat” (one of the basic principles). These first words echo the way in which Chapter I of the Mishneh Torah opens: “yesod hayesodot” (“the basic principle of all basic principles”. . . is to know that there is a First Being).

The first six chapters of Book I, which precede the selections presented here, describe the fundamental truths of revelation; in these chapters, Maimonides tries to unite Aristotelian philosophy and metaphysics with Jewish revelation and law. Beginning with the seventh chapter of the Book, it is man as the bearer of revelation who is discussed. Revelation fulfills itself through men—unusual, exceptional men, but men nevertheless. The prophet is not the “son of God,” nor co-natural with God; though not every gifted man can become a prophet, yet the prophet is man and only man. To understand revelation as far as the limits of reason allow, means: to understand prophecy out of the nature of man.—Jacob Taubes

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One of the basic principles of religion is the knowledge that God causes men to prophesy and that the prophecy comes to rest only upon that man who is very wise and powerfully virtuous and who is never overcome by his Evil Inclination in any matter whatsoever; rather does that man overcome his Evil Inclination through the exercise of his intelligence, being the master of a broad and firm rationality.

2. The various prophets stand on different rungs of prophecy. As men vary in degrees of wisdom, so it is in prophecy; prophets vary in rank. The prophets all see their prophetic visions only in their dreams or in night visions or under the influence of a deep sleep during the day, as it is said, “I do make Myself known unto him in a vision. I do speak with him in a dream” (Num. 12:6). It is true of all the prophets that when they prophesy, their limbs shudder, they grow weak and their thoughts are confused; but through this effect, their minds are cleared to comprehend the prophetic vision. . . .

3. Those things which the prophet is told in his prophetic vision are told in allegory; at once the interpretation of the allegory is engraved upon his heart and he understands the meaning of the prophetic vision. . . . Some of the prophets tell both the allegory and its interpretation; others tell only the interpretation, and yet still others tell the allegory alone without its interpretation, as is the case with some of the prophecies of Ezekiel and Zechariah.

4. None of the prophets prophesies whenever he wishes; rather they concentrate and are happy and of good spirit, for “prophecy lodges not in the midst of sadness, nor in the midst of indolence, but only in the midst of joy.” Therefore, the prophets have “Psaltery, tabret, pipe and harp” before them (I. Sam. 10:5). Thus they seek the prophecy.

5. Those who seek to prophesy are called Sons of the Prophets. Although they concentrate on prophecy, it is not certain that the prophetic spirit will rest upon them; it may or it may not.

6. Everything that we have said above refers to the prophecy of all the early and later prophets, with the exception of Moses, our master, and the master of all the prophets. What difference is there between the prophecy of Moses and that of the other prophets? The difference is that all the other prophets see their prophetic visions in dreams, while Moses our master sees them when he is awake and about, as it is said, “And when Moses went into the tent of meeting, that He might speak with him, then he heard the Voice speaking unto him” (Num. 7:89). All the other prophets receive their prophecies through the medium of an angel, hence they see what they see in allegory and riddle; Moses our master receives his prophecy through the medium of no angel, as it is said, “Mouth to mouth will I speak with him” (Num. 12:8), “The Lord spake unto Moses face to face” (Exod. 33: 11); also, “And the similitude of the Lord doth he behold” (Num. 12:8); that is to say, there is no allegory here, but Moses sees the matter clearly, without benefit of riddle or allegory. . . . All the other prophets are fearful and terrified and melt with terror at sight of the prophetic vision; but it is otherwise with Moses our master. Of him the Writ says, “As a man speaketh unto his neighbor” (Exod. 33:11). Just as when a man is not terrified at his comrade’s voice, so Moses our master possesses the powerful rationality to understand the words of the prophecy and be unshaken. None of the other prophets can prophesy whenever he wishes. It is otherwise with Moses our master. For Moses can prophesy whenever the Holy Spirit envelops him and the prophetic spirit rests upon him. . . . God promised him this gift, as it is said, “Go say unto them ‘Return ye to your tents.’ But as for thee stand thee here by me” (Deut. 5:27-28). From this you may learn that all the other prophets return to their tents when the prophetic spirit deserts them, for they are like the rest of mankind in respect to their bodily needs and cannot remain separated from their wives. But Moses our master did not return to his first tent; hence he separated from his wife and from all such bodily needs forever and his mind was fixed on the Everlasting Rock; the prophetic glory never deserted him, his face cast beams of light and he was sanctified like the angels.

7. At times the prophecy may come to a prophet for his own benefit alone, in order to enlarge his heart and broaden his mind, that he may know what he has not known before of the great matters of the prophecy; at times he may be sent to a foreign people or to the inhabitants of a city or kingdom to give them to understand the divine will, or to tell them what to do, or to deter them from the evil deeds that are in their hands. When the prophet is sent on this mission, he is given a sign or token that the people may know that God has truly sent him. But not every man who displays the sign or token may be believed to be a prophet. Only that man of whom we know from the beginning that he is fit for the prophetic gift by dint of his wisdom or works, by virtue of which he is superior to all his contemporaries, and that he follows the prophetic paths and that of seclusion—if afterwards that man displays a sign or token and says that God has sent him, it is a commandment to listen to him, as it is said, “Unto him ye shall listen” (Deut. 18:15). Yet it is possible that a man may display a sign or token and be no prophet, and that the sign may be a mystery. Nevertheless, it is a commandment to listen to him; seeing that he is a great man and a sage and fit to receive the prophetic gift, he is presumed to be a true prophet. . . .

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Israel did not believe in Moses our master because of the signs that he displayed to them, for he whose faith depends on signs bears a doubt in his heart that perhaps the sign has something of magic and witchcraft in it. All the signs that Moses displayed in the wilderness he displayed of necessity, not to give proofs of his prophetic spirit. . . Why then did they have faith in him? Because of the stand at the foot of Mt. Sinai when “our eyes saw him and no strangers’ eyes, our ears heard and no others’ ears”—seeing and hearing the fire, the thunder, the lightning, and Moses approaching the darkness, and the Voice speaking to him, and hearing, “Moses, Moses, go tell them thus and thus.” For it is said, “The Lord spoke with you face to face” (Deut. 5:4); and it is also said, “The Lord made not this covenant with our fathers only, [but with us, even us, who are all of us here alive this day]” (Deut. 5:3). Whence do we know that the stand at the foot of Mt. Sinai was the unquestioned proof of Moses’ prophecy Because it is said, “Lo I come unto thee in a thick cloud that the people may hear when I speak with thee, and may also believe in thee forever” (Exod. 19:9). From this we may learn that before this event the people did not have complete and lasting faith in Moses, but that their faith was hesitant and questioning.

2. Consequently, those to whom Moses was sent were the witnesses to the truth of his prophecy, and there was no need for him to display a sign to them, for they and he were witnesses to one and the same event. This case resembles that of two witnesses who see the same event at the same time, each of whom can testify that his fellow is telling the truth, and neither of whom needs to bring a proof to convince his fellows of that fact. So it was with Moses our master—all of Israel were witnesses to his prophetic gift after the stand at the foot of Mount Sinai, and there was no need for him to display another sign to them.

3. Therefore, if a prophet should arise and display great signs and tokens and seek to deny the prophetic gift of Moses our master, we are not to listen to him, knowing for certain that those signs he displays are witchcraft and magic; because the prophetic gift of Moses our master was not proven through signs, and we need not weigh his signs against those of this prophet; but we saw the sign with our own eyes and heard it with our own ears, like Moses himself. . . .

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It is a clear and explicit statement in the Torah that the Torah itself is a commandment destined to endure forever; there is no possibility of its change or diminution or addition; as it is said, “All this word which I command you that ye shall observe to do; Thou shalt not add to it, nor take away from it” (Deut. 3:). . . . From this you may learn that a prophet is not permitted to make any innovations in the Torah. Therefore, if a man should arise, be he Israelite or Gentile, and display a sign or token and say that God has sent him to add a commandment or to diminish a commandment or to give any of the commandments an exposition which we have not received from Moses, or if he should say that the commandments which had been laid upon Israel were not destined to endure forever and through all the generations to come, but were rather commandments limited by time—indeed, he is a false prophet, for indeed, he has come to deny the prophetic gift of Moses; and he shall be killed by strangulation, because he presumes to speak in the name of God, who has not commanded him. . . .

3. Yet, if a prophet whom we know to be a true prophet should command us to transgress against any one of the commandments which are given in the Torah or any commandments, be they minor or major, for one occasion only, it is a commandment to listen to him. The tradition teaches us the same in the name of the sages of old: “If a prophet should say to you, ‘Transgress against the words of the Torah,’ as Elijah said at Mount Carmel, listen to him in every case—with the exception of idolatry.” This is true, however, only when the transgression is for one occasion only, as was true of Elijah, who made a burned offering at Mount Carmel, a place that was outside of the Temple in Jerusalem, when the Temple had been chosen as the sole place for such offerings, and he who made an offering outside of the Sanctuary was deemed worthy of excision. But, because Elijah was a true prophet, it was a commandment to listen to him, even in this case; for it was said, “Unto him shall ye hearken” (Deut.18: 15). Now, if any of the people at that time had demanded of Elijah, “How shall we abrogate the verse, ‘Take heed to thyself that thou offer not thy offering in any place. . . .’?” (Deut. 12: 13)—he would have said to them, “Only that person who habitually makes offerings outside of the Temple is deemed worthy of excision as Moses commanded; but I am making the offering today outside of the Temple according to the word of God, in order to discredit the prophets of Baal.” It follows, then, that if a prophet commands the people to transgress against a commandment for one occasion, it is a commandment to listen to him. . .

4. Also, if the prophet should abrogate any of the things that we have learned from tradition or if, in respect to any of the laws in the Torah, he should say that God has commanded him that the law is so and so and the rule is according to the interpretation of such and such a master—why, he is a false prophet and shall be strangled, despite the fact that he has displayed a sign; for he has come to deny the Torah in which it is said, “It is not in Heaven” (Deut. 30:12). But if it be only for one occasion, we must listen to him in everything.

5. This is true of all the other commandments; but in respect to idolatry, we do not listen to the prophet, even for only a single occasion, and though he displays great signs and tokens, and says that God commanded him that idolatry was to be practised only for this day or this hour—indeed, he speaks perversely against God.

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The prophet who arises and says to us that God has sent him need not display a sign resembling the signs displayed by Moses, Elijah, or Elisha—which involved changes in the course of nature. His sign would be if he were to say in advance things that were to happen and his words were to come true. . . . Therefore, when a man fit for prophecy comes in the embassy of God, neither to add to the Torah nor to diminish it, but to serve God through the commandments of the Torah, we do not say to him, “Divide the sea for us, or revive a corpse, or suchlike, and then we will believe you”; but we say to him, “If you are really a prophet, tell us things that are to be.” If he does so, we wait to see whether his words will come true or not. If they err ever so slightly, it is known that he is a false prophet. But if all the things he says come true, then we shall consider him trustworthy.

3. But do not astrologers and magicians also say what is to be in the future? What difference, then, is there between the prophet and them? It is that in respect to the astrologers and magicians and suchlike, part of their words comes true, and part does not. . . . But as for the prophet—all of his words come true, as it is said, “Nothing of the word of the Lord shall fall to the earth” (II Kings 10:10); and it is also said, “The prophet that hath My word, let him speak My word faithfully. What hath chaff to do with the wheat, saith the Lord” (Jer. 23:28)—meaning that the words of the magicians and their dreams are like chaff in which a little wheat has mixed, but the word of God is like pure wheat, in which there is no chaff at all. . . . The prophet has come only to tell us things that are to be, as in respect to plenty or famine, war or peace and suchlike. He may even tell an individual about his personal affairs; as happened to Saul, who had suffered a loss and came to the prophet that he might tell him where the lost object was. It is for the prophet to tell these and suchlike matters, not to found a new religion, or add a commandment to the Torah, or diminish a commandment.

4. In respect to the calamities which the prophet speaks of, such as when he says that so and so will die, or that such and such a year will be a year of famine or war, and suchlike prophecies—if the prophet’s words do not come to pass, that is no repudiation of his prophecy, and we are not to say, “Behold, this that he prophesied has not come to pass”—for the Holy One, blessed be He, who is long-suffering and abounding in kindness and grace, perhaps repented of the evil he was contemplating to inflict, or perhaps the people who were sinful did repentence and were forgiven, as in the case of the inhabitants of Nineveh, or perhaps the execution of the sentence was suspended, as in the case of Hezekiah. But if the prophet promises good fortune and says that such and such will come to pass, and it does not come to pass, it is known that he is a false prophet; for no good fortune that the Lord decrees is ever revoked, even if it is only granted conditionally. From this we learn that the prophet can be tested only in respect to prophecies of good fortune.

5. A prophet whom another, true prophet certifies is considered such, and there is no need to investigate any further; indeed, Moses our master certified Joshua and all of Israel had faith in Joshua before he displayed any sign. So it has happened in every generation; a prophet whose prophecy is known to be true and his words continually trustworthy, or one who is certified by another, true prophet and follows the prophetic path—concerning such a prophet it is forbidden to speculate or to doubt the truth of his prophecy; it is forbidden to test him excessively, and we must not continually be trying him; as it is said, “Ye shall not tempt the Lord, your God, as you tempted Him at Masseh” (Deut. 6:16), where the children of Israel said, “Is the Lord among us or not?” (Exod. 17:7). But since it is known that he is a prophet, they are to have faith and to know that God is in their midst and are not to question or to doubt him; as it is said, “And they shall know that there hath been a prophet among them” (Ezek. 2:5).

Blessed be the Compassionate One, our aid.

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